Innovations

While at the National Bureau of Standards in Washington, D.C., King worked on measuring the accurate heats of formation of gaseous fluorine compounds; she received a Meritorious Publication Award for her paper on fluoride flame calorimetry. This led her to invent special equipment to study very reactive materials for rocket fuels while avoiding explosions. One of these was a coiled tube that allowed fuel to cool rather than explode. Her equipment and techniques enabled King to study oxygen difluoride, a very toxic & explosive fuel that was subsequently used by NASA as a rocket fuel for Apollo 11. This research was important to the NASA space program; the techniques & methods she developed are still used today.

While at North American Aviation, Morgan invented Hydyne (1957), the fuel that powered Jupiter-C rocket that launched the United States' 1st satellite-Explorer 1. Hydyne was used in 3 launchings before being replaced by a stronger fuel. Morgan engineered the Hydyne-LOX (Liquid OXygen) propellant combination used by North American Aviation in their early U.S. rocket designs of the incipient space race. She was considered a rocketry pioneer as she was the only female technical analyst employed by NAA in Downey, California. Morgan suggested calling her new fuel invention 'Bagel', allowing the Redstone propellant combination to be then called 'Bagel and LOX' (a tongue in cheek reference to the brined salmon, lox, which is served with bagels and cream cheese). Her suggested name for the new fuel was not accepted, and 'Hydyne' was chosen instead by the U.S. Army.

Hersh developed a bread recipe that could be prepared on long space flights. Using fluorinated ethylene propylene (FEP) bags to store the dry ingredients, the bags could then be injected with water, kneaded, & baked in the bag, producing a crumbless bread.

Fanara researches the use of aquaponics for space missions. Fish can be taken into space as fertilized eggs and then grown to full size on board. Herbivorous fish like tilapia efficiently produce protein and can eat plant scraps from hydroponic systems that aren’t suitable for humans. Aquaponics combines aquaculture (raising fish) with hydroponics (growing plants without soil). It’s a sustainable system where fish waste provides nutrients for plants, and the plants filter the water for the fish. This offers a closed-loop system for food production during longer space missions.

* Hill designed spectroscopic methods and developed ways to track the progress of the reactions based on solubility * These methods were used to determine the solubility of different components in non-aqueous solutions * Enabled synthetic chemists to identify, isolate, and quantify products * Applicable processes included the polymerization of ketenes, which is used in the synthesis of plastics.

In 1967 Bell Burnell, as a postgraduate student at Cambridge, detected a "bit of scruff" on her chart-recorder papers that tracked across the sky with the stars. The signal had been visible in data taken in August, but as the papers had to be checked by hand, it took her three months to find it. She established that the signal was pulsing with great regularity, at a rate of about one pulse every one and a third seconds. Temporarily dubbed "Little Green Man 1" (LGM-1) the source was identified after several years as a rapidly rotating neutron star. Controversially, Bell did not receive recognition in the 1974 Nobel Prize in Physics. She helped build the Interplanetary Scintillation Array over two years and initially noticed the anomaly. Bell later said that she had to be persistent in reporting the anomaly in the face of skepticism from her thesis supervisor Hewish, who initially insisted it was due to interference and man-made. In later years, she opined that "the fact that I was a graduate student and a woman, together, demoted my standing in terms of receiving a Nobel prize." The decision to exclude her continues to be debated to this day.

Nia Imara and Rosanne DiStefano proposed a method for detecting exoplanets in X-ray binary star systems. Imara, Di Stefano, and their other collaborators found evidence, using the Chandra X-Ray Observatory, of a potential planet passing in front of a star that is 28 million light-years away in the M51 galaxy. Their findings were published to Nature Astronomy in an October 2021 paper entitled "A possible planet candidate in an external galaxy detected through X-ray transit." If the findings are confirmed, this would represent the first sighting of a planet outside of our Milky Way Galaxy. Imara uses as part of her research 3D printers to create resin sculptures of molecular clouds so she can better study them. DiStefano’s work has encompassed a broad range of astronomical systems: stars interacting within dense stellar environments, the binary evolution of possible progenitors of Type Ia supernovae, X-ray astronomy, and gravitational microlensing. She designed a program that brought undergraduates into the Cambridge Public Schools to teach astronomy. DiStefano also wrote the first comprehensive history of supersymmetry and supergravity, ‘Notes on the Conceptual History of Supersymmetry, Supergravity, and Superstrings’. It constituted a major portion of the book Superworld, edited by Kane and Shifman, World Scientific (2001).

Payne-Gaposchkin proposed in her 1925 doctoral thesis that stars were composed primarily of hydrogen and helium. Her groundbreaking conclusion was initially rejected because it contradicted the scientific wisdom of the time, which held that there were no significant elemental differences between the Sun and Earth. Independent observations eventually proved she was correct. Her work on the nature of variable stars was foundational to modern astrophysics.

In 1976, Faber observed the relationship between the brightness and spectra of galaxies and the orbital speeds and motions of the stars within them. The law that resulted would become known as the Faber–Jackson relation. Three years later, Faber and collaborator John S. Gallagher published a paper collecting all of the evidence for the existence of dark matter that had been published at that point. In 1983, she published original research showing that dark matter was not composed of fast-moving neutrinos ("hot dark matter") and that instead, it was likely composed of slow-moving particles yet to be discovered ("cold dark matter").

Brown is known for her analytic compilation of the first large complete sample of X-ray observations of elliptical galaxies. In 2006, Brown became an Astrophysics Fellow at Goddard, where she was NSSDC's primary interface to such Science Archive Research Centers (SARCs) as the High Energy Astrophysics SARC at Goddard, the Multi-Mission Archive at STScI (MAST) and the Infrared Science Archive (IRSA) at Caltech. She also helped to "rationalize" NSSDC's legacy holdings of astrophysics data in light of data supported at the SARCs which are also to be permanently archived at NSSDC.

Bryan wrote several well-regarded textbooks on astronomy and physics for young women; her first work published in 1797 was, "A Compendious System of Astronomy," a textbook for young girls. Her other works included the physics textbook "Lectures on Natural Philosophy," published in 1806 (thirteen lectures on hydrostatics, optics, pneumatics, and acoustics). A smaller volume, "Astronomical and Geographical Class Book for Schools," was published in 1815 and described the mechanics of the air rifle, the hot air balloon, the diving bell, as well as works of Isaac Newton, Galileo, and Benjamin Franklin, including the latter's experiments with lightning. Bryan created a revised edition of an educational board game, "Science in Sport or The Pleasures of Astronomy," in 1804.

Feynman is known for developing an understanding of the origin of auroras; she was able to demonstrate that the occurrence of auroras is a product of the interaction between the Earth's magnetosphere and the magnetic field of the solar wind. She is also known for creating a model that predicts the number of high-energy particles likely to hit a spacecraft over its lifetime, and for uncovering a method for predicting sunspot cycles. In 1971, while working at the NASA Ames Research Center, Feynman discovered that the periodic spouting of solar material known as a solar coronal mass ejection (CME) could be identified by the presence of helium in the solar wind. She helped to develop a model for estimating the environmental hazards of the local space environment. Feynman studied the influence of the sun on patterns of wintertime climate anomalies known as the Arctic oscillation or North Annular Mode (NAM).

Alexander worked for the United States Geological Survey and NASA's Jet Propulsion Laboratory beginning in 1986, and was the project manager of NASA's Galileo mission to Jupiter. The mission discovered 21 new moons of Jupiter and the presence of an atmosphere on Ganymede. The discovery of the atmosphere, more precisely a "surface bound exosphere", caused scientists to rethink their assumptions that Ganymede was an inactive moon. Alexander later served as project manager and scientist of NASA's role in the European-led Rosetta mission to study Comet Churyumov–Gerasimenko.

Quick has dedicated her career to investigating the inner workings of planets and moons. Unlike her colleagues studying Earth, Quick can’t just jet off to investigate these faraway locales for her research. Instead, she combines satellite data, an understanding of Earthly geological processes, and the power of mathematics to imagine how other worlds might behave, modeling volcanic processes. Her research has taken her from volcanic plumes on Jupiter’s icy moon Europa to the surface of the crater-laden dwarf planet Ceres and possible ocean worlds outside the bounds of our solar system.

* Isler’s research focuses on understanding how Nature does particle acceleration by using blazars, supermassive black holes at the centers of massive galaxies that "spin up" jets of particles * Observations of the electromagnetic spectrum: from radio, optical and all the way through to gamma-rays * Using these observations, she can piece together how and why these black holes are able to create such efficient particle accelerators.

was awarded the Nobel Prize in Physics for the discovery of a black hole in the Milky Ways' galactic center; created the UCLA Galactic Center Group to coordinate research and technical developments; January 2020, her team reported the discovery of a new class of bizarre objects — objects that look like gas and behave like stars — at the center of our galaxy, not far from the supermassive black hole; helped pioneer a powerful technology called adaptive optics, which corrects the distorting effects of the Earth’s atmosphere in real time and opened the center of our galaxy as a laboratory for exploring black holes and their fundamental role in the evolution of the universe; published “You Can Be a Woman Astronomer” in 1995; took the first clear photo of the Milky Way; co-authored the book “The Galactic Center: A Window to the Nuclear Environment of Disk Galaxies;” developed a technique known as speckle imaging, which combines many short exposures from a telescope into a single, crisper image;

* At Yale, Doudna's group was able to crystallize and solve the three-dimensional structure of the catalytic core of the Tetrahymena Group I ribozyme. * Showed that a core of five magnesium ions clustered in one region of the P4-P6 domain of the ribozyme, forming a hydrophobic core around which the rest of the structure could fold. * This is analogous but chemically distinct from, the way proteins typically have a core of hydrophobic amino acids. * This initial work to solve large RNA structures led to further structural studies on an internal ribosome entry site (IRES) and protein-RNA complexes such as the signal recognition particle.

* Royal investigated flavor chemistry * Examined the use of additive salts on flavor of meats.

In her research, Steitz focused on the question of how bacteria know where to start the "reading frame" on mRNA. In the process, Steitz discovered the exact sequences on a mature RNA virus encoding three proteins where the virus mRNA binds bacterial ribosomes to produce proteins. In 1969 she published a seminal paper in Nature showing the nucleotide sequence of the binding start points.

During World War II, Hirose was connected with the Kettering Laboratory of Applied Physiology, University of Cincinnati. She also taught microbiology and did research on cancer at Indiana University using antimetabolites. In 1946, she published a paper called "Diffusion of sulfonamides from emulsified ointment bases", which concerned the characteristics of diffusion of sulfa drugs in various types of bases. In 1958, she joined the Lebanon (Pennsylvania) Veterans Administration Hospital as a bacteriologist. Prior to this, she was affiliated with the Ft. Benjamin Harrison Hospital in Indianapolis and the VA Hospital in Dayton, OH.

* Doudna and Charpentier are best known for their Nobel-winning work of deciphering the molecular mechanisms of a bacterial immune system, called CRISPR/Cas9, and repurposing it into a tool for genome editing. * The protein Cas9 cooperates with guide RNA and works like scissors to slice apart the DNA of viruses, preventing the infection of the bacteria. * Doudna and Charpentier showed for the first time that they could use different RNAs to program it to cut and edit different DNAs.

In her studies of worm behavior and neural control, Bargmann focused on olfaction at the molecular level. She looked for genes similar to those found by Richard Axel and Linda Buck to be the basis of smell and taste, and found those genes in the recently sequenced genome of C elegans. Her work led to discoveries of the mechanisms underlying complex behaviors, such as feeding behaviors. The work has continued to lead to a deeper understanding of the brain, sensory abilities, and neuronal development. Bargmann also identified SYG-1, a "matchmaker" molecule—a molecule that directs neurons to form connections with each other during development.

Emeagwali’s research focused on the RAS oncogene, the mutated form of the RAS gene. A normal functioning RAS gene plays a pivotal role in the life of cells in regards to cellular signaling and growth. Mutations that arise in the gene can lead to cancer due to uncontrolled growth. Emeagwali along with her collaborators revealed that RAS oncogene activity can be subdued via antisense methodology. This process ultimately suppresses protein production from the gene. This research provided an insight in how cancer can be combated.

De March’s research is focused on the description of olfaction process at the atomic level. In building a virtual olfactory system by means of computational and microbiology approaches, she can simulate the neuronal mechanism of the perception of smell. This helps to elucidate links between the structure of a chemical and its odor. She has also computationally investigated the interaction between odorant compounds and odorant receptors. De March’s long-term aim is to fully understand the link between odorant receptors and odorants at a molecular level, as well as between odorant receptors and odor perception.

Crowfoot Hodgkin identified & confirmed structures of molecules using x-ray crystallography, the experimental science of determining the atomic and molecular structure of a crystal. By measuring the angles and intensities of the X-ray diffraction, a crystallographer can produce a three-dimensional picture of the density of electrons within the crystal and the positions of the atoms, as well as their chemical bonds, crystallographic disorder, and other information. Using this tool, she was able to map penicillin's 17 atoms in four years. It took her eight years to map the 181 atoms of vitamin B-12, and 34 years for the 788 atoms of insulin; she considered the last to be her crowning achievement. Crowfoot Hodgkin’s work was instrumental in paving the way for the mass-production of insulin, used on a large-scale for the treatment of type 1 & 2 diabetes. Her work with penicillin allowed it to be mass-produced and is widely used as an antibiotic. She was the first to completely determine the structure of a complex organic molecule (cholesterol) by x-ray crystallography. Crowfoot Hodgkin was awarded the Nobel Prize in Chemistry in 1964 for her work.

Extavour directed a national research collaborative called EDEN, which stands for Evo-Devo-Eco (evolutionary-developmental-ecological) Network. The organization, funded by the National Science Foundation, encouraged scientists to develop and share tools and techniques for use in a broader spectrum of organisms than the traditionally studied laboratory model organisms. Extavour believes that a number of deep evolutionary questions cannot be answered by examining only one organism, and thus hopes that science will move past the model organism paradigm.

* Bertozzi coined the term bioorthogonal chemistry for chemical reactions compatible with living systems * Allows researchers to chemically modify molecules within living systems * Won Nobel Prize in chemistry 2022 * Also worked on Click Chemistry, describing how synthetic chemistry could emulate the way nature constructs complex molecules, using efficient reactions to join together simple, non-toxic building blocks * While at Berkeley, discovered viruses can bind to sugars in the body.

* Blum helped identify the fire-retardant Tris as a carcinogen used in children's pajamas and worked to have it banned * Founded the Green Science Policy Institute (GSP) in 2007 to bring scientific research results to decision makers to protect the environment from toxic chemicals. * Institute works to create safer standards for consumer products including bedding materials, furniture, baby products & reduce the use of toxic chemicals in buildings * Conducts research on exposure to toxic chemicals & health of fire fighters, flight attendants, & US & Chinese workers.

* Goel examines the physics of life and the way nanomotors read and write information into DNA * Development of novel conceptual frameworks and theoretical models to describe molecular nanomachines: the dynamics, energy transduction, and coupling to their environment * Experimentally probe the single molecule dynamics of molecular machines that read/write DNA * Demonstrate precision control of nanomotors that read/write DNA * Develop nanoscale techniques to precision control nanomachines and harness them for nanomanufacturing.

one of the founders of modern biotechnology discoverer of Transgenic (now Genetically Modified) Plants; holds 18 patents

with Irv Weissman discovered CD24 proteins role is to "signal" cancer cells from "being eaten" by macrophages (white blood cells); leader in the field of innate immunity in cancer & conducts research aimed at understanding the regulators of intratumoral macrophage function; Pheast Therapeutics (company she co-founded) aims to bolster innate immune responses to cancer by blocking the signal that certain cancer cells send to ward off the bodys immune system ; her research targets ovarian & breast cancers

has almost 10 years experience in cancer stem cell research; her mission during her space flight was to conduct stem cell & breast cancer research

led the team that created the BLU-118/B, a laser-guided bomb designed to travel deep into confined spaces (AKA the Bunker Buster Bomb)( BLU stands for Bomb Live Unit); responsible for the creation of an American thermobaric weapon by leading a team of 100 scientists who developed & created 11 bombs within 67 days after 9/11;

* Mitra developed use of nanomaterial-based dental fillers * Fundamentally addressed key limitations in previous dental restoration materials: lack of durability, aesthetics, and universal applicability. * Introduction of nanotechnology into dental composites overcomes the dichotomy between strength and polishability. * By utilizing nanosized silica and zirconia particles, she has created a hybrid structure that provides both superior mechanical properties and a lifelike appearance.

Created foundation shades for women of color

rewrote chemistry textbooks for teaching

co-invented Scotch Guard together with Samuel Smith

studied the conductivity & electrical resistance of different chemicals in water solutions signal transduction in rat liver the effects of drugs on human livers;

Hornig was the founding director of HERS (Higher Education Resource Services) under the auspices of the Committee for the Concerns of Women in New England Colleges and Universities first organized by Sheila Tobias.[3] She served on equal opportunity committees for the National Science Foundation, the National Cancer Institute, and the American Association for the Advancement of Science. She was the research chair of the Committee for the Equality of Women at Harvard, and consulted with and participated in many studies of women's science education and careers.[3]

a hormone generated by the gut that triggers the release of insulin. The amino acid sequence of GLP-1 was similar to a gastric inhibitory peptide, an incretin. To try to identify whether a specific fragment of GLP-q was an incretin, Mojsov created an incretin-antibody and developed ways to track its presence. Specifically, Mojsov identified that a stretch of 31 amino acids in the GLP-1 was an incretin.[2][3] Together with Daniel J. Drucker and Habener, Mojsov showed that small quantities of lab-synthesized GLP-1 could trigger insulin.